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Download Jupyter notebook:
https://docs.doubleml.org/stable/examples/py_double_ml_plm_irm_hetfx.ipynb.
Python: PLM and IRM for Multiple Treatments#
In this example, we show the behavior of the PLM and IRM estimators when the treatment effect is heterogeneous across different treatments. We show that since the PLM estimates a convex-weighted average of treatment effects, it is not able to recover the true treatment effects when they are heterogeneous. On the other hand, the IRM estimator is able to recover the true treatment effects when they are heterogeneous. This is shown to matter substantially when ranking treatments by their estimated treatment effects.
We assume basic knowledge of the potential outcomes framework and the assumptions of the PLM and IRM estimators.
[1]:
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from doubleml import DoubleMLData, DoubleMLPLR, DoubleMLIRM
from xgboost import XGBRegressor, XGBClassifier
%matplotlib inline
%config InlineBackend.figure_format = 'retina'
Ranking Treatment Effects under Treatment Propensity and Treatment Effect Heterogeneity#
We consider a setting with two treatments \(D_1\) and \(D_2\), a single binary covariate \(X\) (with \(p=0.5\)), and a continuous outcome \(Y\). The propensity scores for the two treatments are given by:
X D |
\(D_1\) = 1 |
\(D_2\) = 1 |
---|---|---|
X = 0 |
0.01 |
0.5 |
X = 1 |
0.5 |
0.01 |
And the underlying heterogeneous treatment effects are given by:
X \(\tau\) |
\(\tau_1\) |
\(\tau_2\) |
---|---|---|
X = 0 |
-3 |
-2 |
X = 1 |
3 |
3 |
ATE |
0 |
0.5 |
The researcher seeks to rank the two treatments based on their average treatment effects. We compare the behavior of the PLM and IRM estimators in this setting.
We implement the DGP below.
[2]:
def dgp(
n = 100_000,
treat1_params = {
"p_x0": 0.01, "p_x1": 0.50, "τ_x0": -3, "τ_x1": 3,
},
treat2_params = {
"p_x0": 0.5, "p_x1": 0.01, "τ_x0": -2, "τ_x1": 3,
},
):
# utility functions to transform between the probability scale and the logit scale
sigmoid = lambda x: 1 / (1 + np.exp(-x))
inv_sigmoid = lambda p: np.log(p / (1 - p))
df = pd.DataFrame()
# noise terms
eta1 = np.random.normal(0, 0.1, size=n)
eta2 = np.random.normal(0, 0.1, size=n)
eps = np.random.normal(0, 1, size=n)
# binary covariate
df["x"] = np.random.randint(2, size=n) # half and half
df[["x0", "x1"]] = pd.get_dummies(df.x)
# treatment 1 propensity score
pscore1 = df.x0 * (inv_sigmoid(treat1_params["p_x0"]) + eta1) + df.x1 * (
inv_sigmoid(treat1_params["p_x1"]) + eta2
)
# treatment 2 propensity score
pscore2= df.x0 * (inv_sigmoid(treat2_params["p_x0"]) + eta2) + df.x1 * (
inv_sigmoid(treat2_params["p_x1"]) + eta2
)
df['d1'] = np.random.binomial(1, sigmoid(pscore1))
df['d2'] = np.random.binomial(1, sigmoid(pscore2))
# outcome 1
df["y"] = (
0
+ 1 * df.x0 # arbitrary covariate coefs
- 2 * df.x1
+ df.x0 * df.d1 * (treat1_params["τ_x0"])
+ df.x1 * df.d1 * (treat1_params["τ_x1"])
+ df.x0 * df.d2 * (treat2_params["τ_x0"])
+ df.x1 * df.d2 * (treat2_params["τ_x1"])
+ eps
)
return df.drop(["x0", "x1"], axis=1)
df = dgp()
df.head()
[2]:
x | d1 | d2 | y | |
---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.415545 |
1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | -1.710202 |
2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0.908788 |
3 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2.309962 |
4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.821121 |
[3]:
print(pd.crosstab(df.x, df.d1, normalize='index'))
print(pd.crosstab(df.x, df.d2, normalize='index'))
d1 0 1
x
0 0.990585 0.009415
1 0.500531 0.499469
d2 0 1
x
0 0.503261 0.496739
1 0.988831 0.011169
The Partially Linear Model performs overlap weighting#
The partially linear model inherits the properties of linear regression under treatment effect heterogeneity (Angrist (1998), Angrist and Krueger(1999), Aronow and Samii (2016)). The probability limit of the treatment coefficient in the partially linear model \(Y_i = \tau D_i + g(X_i) + \epsilon_i\) is given by:
where
This simplifies to
when \(D\) is binary.
We have deliberately generated a dataset with varying propensity scores across treatments and covariates. Since we have a single binary covariate, we can analytically estimate the plim of the above estimator. The regression coefficients are equal to:
So, we see that the PLM gets the ranking wrong; even though the treatment effect of \(D_1\) (0) is lower than that of \(D_2\) (0.5), the PLM estimates the treatment effect of \(D_1\) to be higher than that of \(D_2\) because it upweights the stratum with large positive effects when estimating the effect for \(D_1\) and vice versa for \(D_2\).
We verify this numerically with the DoubleML
.
[4]:
df = dgp()
dml_data = DoubleMLData(df, 'y', ['d1', 'd2'], 'x')
plr_obj = DoubleMLPLR(dml_data,
ml_l = XGBRegressor(),
ml_m = XGBClassifier(),
n_folds=5)
plr_obj.fit()
plr_est = plr_obj.summary
print(plr_est)
coef std err t P>|t| 2.5 % 97.5 %
d1 2.770751 0.013033 212.600484 0.0 2.745207 2.796294
d2 -1.798697 0.011962 -150.365934 0.0 -1.822143 -1.775252
The Augmented Inverse Propensity Weighting Model estimates the ATE under arbitrary effect and propensity score heterogeneity#
The AIPW estimator is given by:
and estimates the ATE consistently under arbitrary treatment effect and propensity score heterogeneity, and therefore ranks the two treatments correctly (i.e. \(D_2\) has a higher treatment effect than \(D_1\)).
[5]:
df = dgp()
aipw_obj_1 = DoubleMLIRM(DoubleMLData(df, 'y', ['d1'], 'x'),
ml_g = XGBRegressor(),
ml_m = XGBClassifier(),
n_folds=5)
aipw_obj_1.fit()
aipw_obj_2 = DoubleMLIRM(DoubleMLData(df, 'y', ['d2'], 'x'),
ml_g = XGBRegressor(),
ml_m = XGBClassifier(),
n_folds=5)
aipw_obj_2.fit()
aipw_est_1, aipw_est_2 = aipw_obj_1.summary, aipw_obj_2.summary
print(aipw_est_1)
print(aipw_est_2)
coef std err t P>|t| 2.5 % 97.5 %
d1 -0.0523 0.032638 -1.602417 0.109063 -0.11627 0.01167
coef std err t P>|t| 2.5 % 97.5 %
d2 0.483694 0.039102 12.370186 3.789422e-35 0.407056 0.560332
Summary Figure#
We summarize the true treatment effects, the PLM estimates, and the IRM estimates in a figure.
[6]:
colors = ['#da1440', '#e45228', '#ec973f', '#a4a147', '#008e80', '#008dbd',
'#f6ebce', '#838235', '#3f5d93', '#50768b', '#133f5a', '#afd9e4']
# Plot the data
x = np.array([1, 2])
y = [(-3+3)/2, (-2+3)/2]
fig, ax = plt.subplots(dpi = 100, figsize = (6, 4))
# plm
plt.errorbar(x,
plr_est.coef,
yerr=1.96 * plr_est['std err'], markersize = 1,
fmt='o', color=colors[0], ecolor=colors[0], capsize=5, label = 'PLM Estimate')
plt.errorbar(x+.05,
np.array([aipw_est_1.coef, aipw_est_2.coef]).flatten(),
yerr = 1.96 * np.array([aipw_est_1.iloc[:,1].values[0],
aipw_est_2.iloc[:,1].values[0]]),
markersize = 3,
fmt='o', color=colors[8], ecolor=colors[8], capsize=5, label = 'AIPW Estimate'
)
# true values
plt.scatter(x-.05, y, color = colors[2], label = 'ATE')
plt.scatter(x-.1, [-3, -2], color = colors[5], label=r"CATE: $x=0$")
plt.scatter(x-.12, [3, 3], color = colors[4], label=r"CATE: $x=1$")
plt.legend(loc = 0)
plt.title("PLMs do not estimate ATEs \n This is bad for ranking treatments")
plt.axis((.5, 3, -3.5, 4))
ax.set_xticks([])
string_labels = ['Treatment 1', 'Treatment 2']
ax.set_xticks(x)
ax.set_xticklabels(string_labels)
ax.grid(True)
ax.set_ylabel("Treatment Effect")
plt.show()
![../_images/examples_py_double_ml_plm_irm_hetfx_10_0.png](../_images/examples_py_double_ml_plm_irm_hetfx_10_0.png)
Additional Results: CATE estimates#
As an additional comparison, we can add the CATE estimates based on the previous PLR and IRM examples.
[7]:
# pandas data frame with one-hot encoded values for x
groups = pd.get_dummies(df.x)
[8]:
# Repeat estimation for each treatment var separately
# d1
dml_data = DoubleMLData(df, 'y', 'd1', ['d2', 'x'])
plr_obj_1 = DoubleMLPLR(dml_data,
ml_l = XGBRegressor(),
ml_m = XGBClassifier(),
n_folds=5)
plr_obj_1.fit()
plr_est1 = plr_obj_1.summary
plr_obj_1.gate(groups=groups).summary.round(3)
[8]:
coef | std err | t | P>|t| | [0.025 | 0.975] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | -3.032 | 0.045 | -66.761 | 0.0 | -3.121 | -2.943 |
1 | 3.007 | 0.009 | 336.577 | 0.0 | 2.990 | 3.025 |
[9]:
# d2
dml_data = DoubleMLData(df, 'y', 'd2', ['d1', 'x'])
plr_obj_2 = DoubleMLPLR(dml_data,
ml_l = XGBRegressor(),
ml_m = XGBClassifier(),
n_folds=5)
plr_obj_2.fit()
plr_est2 = plr_obj_2.summary
plr_obj_2.gate(groups=groups).summary.round(3)
[9]:
coef | std err | t | P>|t| | [0.025 | 0.975] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | -1.997 | 0.009 | -224.135 | 0.0 | -2.014 | -1.979 |
1 | 2.935 | 0.044 | 66.687 | 0.0 | 2.849 | 3.022 |
[10]:
# IRM models
# d1
aipw_obj_1.gate(groups=groups).summary.round(3)
[10]:
coef | std err | t | P>|t| | [0.025 | 0.975] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | -3.095 | 0.044 | -70.298 | 0.0 | -3.181 | -3.009 |
1 | 3.009 | 0.044 | 68.143 | 0.0 | 2.923 | 3.096 |
[11]:
# IRM models
# d2
aipw_obj_2.gate(groups=groups).summary.round(3)
[11]:
coef | std err | t | P>|t| | [0.025 | 0.975] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | -2.000 | 0.054 | -36.985 | 0.0 | -2.106 | -1.894 |
1 | 2.983 | 0.054 | 54.990 | 0.0 | 2.877 | 3.090 |
References#
Lal, A., Chou, W., & Schaefer, J. (2024). Using Double Machine Learning to Rank Treatments, Working Paper. Poster available at https://apoorvalal.github.io/files/slides/acic_2024_poster.pdf. Thread available at https://x.com/Apoorva__Lal/status/1798913180930109556.
Angrist, J. D. (1998). Estimating the labor market impact of voluntary military service using social security data on military applicants. Econometrica, 66(2), 249-288.
Angrist, J. D., & Krueger, A. B. (1999). Empirical strategies in labor economics. Handbook of labor economics, 3, 1277-1366.
Aronow, P. M., & Samii, C. (2016). Does regression produce representative estimates of causal effects?. American Journal of Political Science, 60(1), 250-267.